Moringa dried leaf extract as bio-foliar fertilizer for revitalizing performance and nutritional status of soybean | Scientific Reports

Jul 01, 2025

Scientific Reports volume 15, Article number: 20431 (2025) Cite this article

Naturally occurring plant based biostimulants can be used to improve crop productivity and quality as an eco-friendly approach. Moringa oleifera, known as the miracle tree, is a rich source of essential nutrients and beneficial compounds that can act as a potent growth enhancer. Its leaves are nutrient dense that contain rich blends of essential vitamins (A, C, K, and E), riboflavin, iron (Fe) and diverse range of phenolics. The current work (pot experiment) aimed to appraise whether moringa dried leaf extract (MDLE) could improve growth, physiology, seed nutritional and quality attributes of soybean (Glycine max). The designed study followed a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement having four replications examining various MDLE concentrations [water spray as control, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% (w/v)] and growth stages [vegetative (V4, four leaf stage) and reproductive (R1: onset of flowering)] of soybean. The results revealed that foliar application of 1.5% MDLE during the reproductive stage of soybean showcased statistically significant improvements in growth, yield and seed nutritional attributes. Notably, seedling growth attributes, photosynthetic pigments, leaf area, gas exchange parameters, yield attributes, seed nutritional and quality attributes were significantly boosted. The observed improvements in soybean growth, physiology, and yield can be attributed to the bioactive compounds in MDLE. Cytokinins promote cell division and delay senescence, antioxidants mitigate oxidative stress, and essential minerals enhance nutrient uptake and enzymatic activity. These interactions collectively enhance photosynthesis, biomass accumulation, and seed development, leading to improved crop performance. Overall, increments in seedling growth metrics (22%), leaf area (16.12%), carotenoids (photosynthetic pigment) (8.33%), gas exchange attributes (18%), yield components (37%) and seed nutritional attributes (18%) were observed with 1.5% MDLE application during the reproductive stage. This underscores the potential of MDLE foliar application during reproductive stage in improving soybean growth, quality and seed nutritional contents. Compared to other biostimulants, MDLE offers a cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternative with multiple benefits, including enhanced nutrient efficiency, reduced dependency on synthetic fertilizers, and potential resilience against abiotic stress. Its scalability in large-scale agriculture is promising due to its easy preparation, affordability, and compatibility with existing farming practices, making it an attractive option for sustainable intensification. Future research should uncover how MDLE works and its potential in stressful environments in field as well as in controlled conditions, advancing sustainable agriculture.

Soybean (Glycine max L.), often regarded as a wonder legume and gold from the soil, holds immense economic, agricultural and industrial significance worldwide. Known for its protein-rich seeds, soybean serves as a vital source of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins and minerals. This crop plays a pivotal role in both animal feed and human diets1. Beyond its nutritional value, soybean is recognized for its therapeutic properties2. Owing to its potential to address the escalating demands for food, feed and biofuel, soybean contributes significantly to global food security3. Following palm oil, soybean oil ranks as the most consumed cooking oil worldwide and is a key export commodity, contributing to the sector’s substantial retail market value, estimated at approximately USD 52.86 billion in 2023. While a vast portion of soybean is utilized for meal and oil production, only a small fraction, approximately 2%, is designated for direct human consumption as a pulse4.

The reliance on costly and environmentally harmful inorganic fertilizers poses challenges for farmers, contributing to soil degradation and pollution5. Consequently, there’s a pressing need to explore alternative, eco-friendly sources of plant nutrients. The use of biostimulants in agriculture to boost crop growth and yield is sustainable and a potential remedy6. Biostimulants are a perfect combination of various antioxidants, growth hormones and essential nutrients that enhance productivity and quality of the crops7,8,9.

Moringa oleifera (Lam.) is an effective alternative to inorganic fertilizers that enhance growth, yield and quality of crops like wheat, maize and soybean6,10,11,12. It is a natural growth booster of the crops because of the ample quantity of vitamins, minerals, cytokinins and various antioxidants13. It is used fresh, and its dried leaves extract can be used for foliar feeding in crops. Foliar feeding of 3% moringa leaf extract (MLE) at one- and three-months old seedlings of moringa enhanced synthesis of cytokinins that improved photosynthesis, leaf area and reduced leaf aging12,14,15. Shalaby16 reported effectiveness of MLE as biostimulant to mitigate negative impacts of environmental stresses and boosts crop growth and productivity.

Past research showcased the positive impacts of MLE on nutrient uptake and concentration in different crops. As, Elzaawely et al.17 reported that exogenous application of MLE enhanced N, P and K concentration in snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) pods. Likewise, a prominent increase in N, P, K and S in brinjal fruit was observed with foliar application of MLE18. Merwad19 observed a boost in essential nutrients like N, P, K, Ca, Mg and Fe with foliar application of MLE in pea. Foliar application of 20% MLE increased macro and micronutrients like N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, and Zn in the leaves of stevia20. Bandana et al.21 reported that priming of mungbean seed with ethanolic extract of moringa resulted in higher nodulation and nitrogenase activity. Combined foliar application of MLE with sorghum water extract improved biochemical, yield and quality attributes in maize22. Likewise, seed priming with MLE (1:30 dilution with distilled water) proved as an effective tool in boosting germination, growth and yield under normal and stress conditions in rangeland grasses and wheat11,23.

Many researchers put forth positive impacts of the use of MLE in different field crops11,23,24,25,26,27,28. However, the use of dry moringa leaves extract as biostimulant in soybean is still unexplored. Moreover, the mechanisms responsible for biostimulant-mediated growth and yield enhancement in soybean also remain elusive and warrant further investigation. In the backdrop of growing interest in sustainable farming practices and the limitations associated with synthetic substances, there is a compelling need to explore the use of dry moringa leaf extract as a natural biostimulant. The adoption of MDLE as a natural biostimulant in soybean cultivation offers a win-win scenario, where economic gains from higher yields and lower input costs are coupled with environmental benefits such as improved soil health, reduced chemical dependency, and enhanced climate resilience. This synergy makes MDLE not just an agronomic tool but a strategic input for promoting profitable, sustainable, and environmentally responsible agriculture. Therefore, the present study was designed to evaluate the potential of foliar application and dosage of MLE to enhance the growth, yield, and quality of soybean.

The planned study was carried out at the Research Farm of MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan in spring, 2022. The location (30°11′44″ N and 71°28′31″ E, situated 129 m above sea level) lies within the arid region of South Punjab. During summer, temperature can soar as high as 48–50 °C, while in winter; it can plummet to 3–4 °C. Detailed weather data, including maximum and minimum temperatures and rainfall throughout the study, were obtained from the Agro-Met Observatory at MNSUAM (Fig. 1). During critical growth stages (March to May) minimum temperature range was 28–29 °C and maximum temperature was 38–40 °C, while total rainfall was 31 mm. Soil texture was sandy loam with pH 7.8, EC 1.91 dSm− 1, organic matter 0.68%, available phosphorus 12.05 ppm and available potassium 195 ppm (Table 1).

Weather data of crop growing season of 2022.

The soil was prepared by filling pots with a capacity of 5 kg (30 cm height and 22 cm diameter) after undergoing processing steps including cleaning, grinding and sieving through a 2 mm sieve. Pots simulated real field conditions well as the pots were placed in an open environment. To assess the physio-chemical properties, soil samples were collected before pot filling and a representative composite sample was prepared by mixing and processing all the soil samples together (Table 1). Seed of the soybean variety “Rawal-1” was sourced from NARC, Islamabad, Pakistan. The crop was sown in pots on February 25, 2022, with five surface sterilized seeds planted in each pot, and only one seedling was maintained until harvest. Urea (46% N), SSP (18% P2O5) and SOP (50% K2O) were utilized to provide nitrogen (12.3 mg N), phosphorus (18.6 mg P), and potassium (14.5 mg K) per pot, respectively. To ensure even distribution of applied fertilizers, all pots were irrigated and left to equilibrate for three days. Subsequently, pots were watered as needed throughout the experiment.

The moringa leaves, used for extract preparation, were collected from the already well established moringa trees at the university research area and permission was granted from the concerned department before the harvesting/collection of leaves. The fresh moringa leaves were collected during the spring season. After a thorough wash with tap water, these leaves were left to dry completely in the shade. Once dried, they were finely ground into a powder. This powder, in a ratio of 1:20 w/v, was blended with distilled water and allowed to steep for 24 h at room temperature (25 °C ±3 °C), yielding a concentrated stock solution. To ensure purity, the solution was filtered using four layers of muslin cloth followed by Whatman No.1 filter paper (11 μm pore size). From this purified stock solution, four distinct concentrations of MDLE (0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) were derived by diluting it with distilled water. The prepared MDLE was used immediately after filtration to preserve the integrity of its bioactive compounds, such as cytokinins, antioxidants, and vitamins, which are sensitive to degradation over time. Analysis of MDLE encompassing proximate analysis, minerals and vitamins and phytochemicals is presented in Table 2.

The experiment was conducted using a completely randomized design (CRD) with factorial arrangement and four replications. It consisted of two factors: Factor A, which involved foliar application of MDLE (T1: Water spray, T2: 0.5%, T3: 1.0%, and T4: 1.5% w/v), and Factor B, representing growth stages for foliar application, S1: Vegetative stage (V4, four-leaf stage) and S2: Reproductive stage (R1: onset of flowering)29. The CRD was selected for this bioassay because of the controlled conditions under which the study was conducted, which minimized environmental variability typically encountered in field experiments. Moreover, the uniform distribution of pots during experimental period helped to mitigate any potential micro-environmental effects. Since the primary focus was on evaluating the effects of MDLE concentrations and application stages without external environmental confounding factors, CRD provided an efficient and statistically robust framework for analyzing treatment effects. 3 ml of MDLE solution per plant was sprayed at vegetative and reproductive stage of soybean plants. Water spray was utilized as the control treatment. The concentrations of 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5% MDLE were selected based on prior research highlighting their efficacy in enhancing plant growth and yield without causing phytotoxic effects. Lower concentrations (around 0.5%) have been reported to initiate physiological responses, such as improved seed germination and early growth23, while moderate concentrations (1.0%) effectively enhance photosynthetic efficiency and nutrient uptake30. Higher concentrations, such as 1.5%, have demonstrated significant improvements in yield-related attributes, likely due to increased availability of growth-promoting compounds like cytokinins, vitamins, and antioxidants28. These specific concentrations allowed us to evaluate a gradient of MDLE effectiveness, balancing growth stimulation with the risk of potential nutrient imbalances or metabolic stress at excessive doses.

Seedling root and shoot length were assessed after 5 days of treatment application using a measuring tape in centimeters. Leaf area was determined using a leaf area meter (CI-203 Laser leaf area meter, CID Inc., USA) following 5 days of treatment application. Prior to data collection, the device was calibrated using a standard reference sheet with known dimensions to ensure measurement accuracy. Regular recalibration was performed to account for any potential drift in sensor sensitivity, ensuring consistent and reliable data. Days taken for pod formation were calculated from the initiation of pod formation.

To analyze the carotenoid contents in the leaves, method outlined by Lichtenthaler and Wellburn31 was followed. Initially, 0.2 g of fresh leaves were extracted using 80% acetone and left to rest overnight at a refrigerated temperature of 0–4 °C. The resulting extract was then centrifuged at 8000×g for 10 min to obtain the supernatant, and its absorbance was measured at 645 nm, 663 nm, and 480 nm using a spectrophotometer (UV 4000, ORI, Hamburg, Germany). To calculate the carotenoid contents, the following formula was used:

For the measurement of photosynthetic rate (A) (µmol CO2 m− 2 s− 1) and transpiration rate (E) (mmol H2O m− 2 s− 1), fully extended leaf of soybean seedling was used by following protocols as outlined by Long et al.32. Measurements were recorded utilizing a CIRAS-3 portable open-flow gas exchange system (PP Systems, Amesbury, USA). To ensure accuracy and reproducibility, the instrument was calibrated before each measurement session using standard reference gases with known CO₂ concentrations and a zero-gas calibration for baseline adjustment. Additionally, temperature, humidity and light intensity settings were standardized to match ambient conditions during measurements. The flow rate and leaf chamber conditions were regularly monitored and adjusted to maintain consistency throughout the experiment.

Five seeds were sown in each pot and one plant in each pot was maintained till harvesting while remaining four plants used for different analysis/extractions and. Pod length (cm) and pod diameter (mm) were measured using a digital vernier caliper from the one plant in each pot. The test weight was determined by counting 100 seeds and measuring their weight using an electrical weight balance, expressed in grams. To estimate the biological yield, plants from each pot were manually harvested and allowed to sun dry for moisture removal. Subsequently, the weight of plants in grams per plant was recorded. Harvest index was calculated by using the following formula:

The ash content of the samples was determined using AOAC33 technique No. 08-01. The formula for calculating ash percentage is as follows:

\({\text{Weight}}\;{\text{of}}\;{\text{ash}}\;\left( {\text{g}} \right){\text{ }}={\text{ }}({\text{Dried}}\;{\text{Sample}}+{\text{Crucible}}\;{\text{weight}})--\left( {{\text{Crucible}}\;{\text{weight}}} \right)\)

The fiber content of the samples was determined using AOAC33 technique No. 32 -10. The formula for calculating fiber percentage is as follows:

The concentrations of K and Ca in soybean seed were estimated using flame photometer (Model 360, Sherwood, UK) as per the procedure of USDA Laboratory Staff34. Mineral contents, such as Mg, Zn, and Fe, in the seeds were recorded according to the wet digestion method described by Rashid35. The atomic absorption spectrum was used to analyze the mineral contents.

The collected data were subjected to statistical analysis using the software “Statistic 8.1”. Fisher’s analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to determine the significance of the data. Moreover, Microsoft Excel was utilized for graphical representation and calculating standard errors. To assess the differences among treatment means, the Tukey’s HSD test was employed at a 5% significance level36.

The level of significance associated with soybean seedling growth, biochemical, gas exchange, yield, quality and seed nutritional attributes in response to foliar application of MDLE at different growth stages is presented in Table 3.

Data related to soybean seedling root, shoot length and leaf area are shown in Table 4. Regarding soybean seedling metrics, maximum root and shoot length was recorded when MDLE was applied at reproductive stage (S2) at 1.5% concentration. Application of MDLE resulted in notable increases in root and shoot length, with the highest values recorded with 1.5% MDLE. Application of MDLE at 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% improved root length of soybean by 8, 10 and 22%, respectively as compared to water spray. Interaction between MDLE concentrations and growth stages was not significant for both roots as well shoot length (Table 4). The absence of significant interaction effects between MDLE concentration and growth stages for traits like root and shoot length could be attributed to bioactive compounds present in MDLE such as cytokinins, antioxidants and essential nutrients that exerted their influence regardless of the plant’s developmental stage. This uniform response may result from the systemic action of these compounds, which enhance fundamental physiological processes like cell division, nutrient uptake, and photosynthesis across both vegetative and reproductive phases. Regarding shoot length, application of MDLE at 1.0 and 1.5% produced statistically similar results and were superior as compared to the water spray. Application of MDLE at reproductive stage was more effective as compared to the vegetative stage. For leaf area (LA), 1.5% MDLE application at reproductive stage improved LA. The interaction revealed that the peak of LA (33.19 cm2) was achieved in response to 1.5% MDLE application at reproductive stage (Table 4). Foliar application of MDLE (1.5%) at reproductive stage showcased a remarkable increase (13–22%) in seedling growth metrics. The superior performance of MDLE when applied during the reproductive stage compared to the vegetative stage can be attributed to the heightened physiological demands of soybean plants during this critical phase of development. The reproductive stage involves complex processes such as flowering, pod formation, and seed filling, which require substantial energy, nutrients, and hormonal regulation to support optimal growth and yield formation.

Impact of foliar applied MDLE at varying growth stages of soybean on leaf carotenoids of soybean is presented in Table 5. Carotenoid levels peaked at the reproductive stage followed by vegetative stage, mainly in response to 1.5% MDLE concentration. Interaction between growth stages and MDLE concentration was non-significant. However, a noTable 8% increase in carotenoids was observed for soybean plants treated with 1.5% MDLE.

Application of 0.5% MDLE and water spray at vegetative, and reproductive stage produced statistically similar results; although, application at reproductive stage was better than vegetative stage. Maximum photosynthetic rate was recorded for soybean plants that were sprayed with 1.5% MDLE at reproductive stage (Table 5). Photosynthetic rate (15.57 µmol CO2 m− 2 s− 1) under this treatment combination was 26% higher than realized (12.38 µmol CO2 m− 2 s− 1) under same concentration applied at vegetative stage. A 26% increase in photosynthetic rate translates into more efficient carbon assimilation, which directly supports greater biomass accumulation and seed development. This enhanced photosynthetic capacity allows plants to better withstand suboptimal conditions, improving overall resilience to environmental stressors such as drought or nutrient deficiencies. MDLE is a known source of cytokinins, plant hormones that regulate cell division, delay senescence, and promote nutrient mobilization. The observed increase in photosynthetic rate can be linked to the cytokinin-mediated stimulation of chloroplast development and maintenance of chlorophyll content. Cytokinins enhance the synthesis of photosynthetic enzymes such as Rubisco, leading to improved carbon assimilation. Additionally, they promote stomatal conductance, facilitating CO₂ uptake, which likely contributed to the higher gas exchange rates observed in this study. Application of all MDLE concentrations greatly improved transpiration rate when applied at reproductive stage as compared to the vegetative growth stage of soybean. An upper limit of transpiration rate was achieved for soybean plants in response to 1.5% MDLE application at reproductive stage. The next higher transpiration rate was realized with 1.0% MDLE application at same growth stage (Table 4).

For days to pod formation, interactive effect between MDLE concentrations and application stage was non-significant (Table 6). However, this phenological attribute was significantly affected by the main effects of MDLE concentrations and growth stages. Soybean plants sprayed with 1.5% MDLE achieved pod formation three days earlier than plants that were sprayed with water. Pod length was increased in a concentration dependent manner and maximum pod length was recorded for soybean plants that were sprayed with 1.5% MDLE. Increments in pod length corresponded to 21, 38 and 55% in response to 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% concentration of MDLE, respectively as compared to control (water spray). Pod diameter did not vary significantly for plants that were sprayed either with water or 0.5% MDLE. However, MDLE concentration beyond 0.5%, i.e. 1.0 and 1.5% significantly improved pod diameter by 9 and 13%, respectively. The lack of interaction for pod diameter might be due to its strong genetic determination, making it less responsive to external factors like MDLE concentration at specific growth stages. 100-seed weight of soybean showed a remarkable increase (17–37%) in response to MDLE application as compared to water spray with higher dose being more effective (Table 7). A 37% improvement in yield-related components like pod length, seed weight, and biological yield suggests substantial productivity gains. In practical terms, this could result in significantly higher per-hectare yields, improving farm profitability without the need for additional synthetic inputs. These gains are particularly valuable in resource-constrained settings, where cost-effective biostimulants like MDLE can reduce dependency on expensive fertilizers while promoting sustainable agriculture. The interactive effect between MDLE concentrations and application stage was non-significant for seed weight, biological yield and harvest index (Table 6). However, these attributes were significantly affected by the main effects of MDLE concentrations and growth stages (Table 7). MDLE application at reproductive stage caused greater increase (24%) in seed weight than its application at vegetative stage. A similar trend was also observed for biological yield and harvest index with upper limit realized with the application of 1.5% MDLE although it was at par with 1.0% MDLE. The lowest biological yield was recorded in response to water spray. MDLE application at reproductive stage was more effective than its application at vegetative stage (Table 7).

The impact of foliar applied MDLE on seed K, Zn and Ca contents of soybean at various growth stages is presented in Fig. 2. For seed nutritional attributes (K, Zn and Ca), the highest increment was attained at reproductive stage, followed by vegetative stage, with 1.5% MDLE resulting in the highest nutrient contents, followed by 1% and 0.5%, and the lowest with water spray (Fig. 2A–C). Application of 0.5% MDLE at the reproductive stage was statistically at par with water spray at this stage regarding K, Zn and Ca contents. For vegetative stage, the same was true for seed K contents only, but not for Zn and Ca contents. Similarly, for seed Mg and Fe contents, the greatest increase occurred when MDLE was applied at reproductive stage, followed by vegetative stage. Regarding MDLE concentrations, 1.5% MDLE yielded the highest values for both Mg and Fe contents; nevertheless, it was at par with 1.0% MDLE. The lowest values of aforementioned attributes were recorded with water spray. The 18% boost in seed nutritional attributes, including increased concentrations of essential minerals like K, Zn and Ca has direct benefits for both human nutrition and animal feed quality. Higher nutrient density enhances the market value of the soybean crop, making it more competitive in both domestic and export markets. For livestock feed, improved nutrient content can reduce the need for supplemental mineral fortification, lowering feed costs. The interaction between growth stages and MDLE concentration was non-significant (Fig. 3A, B).

Impact of foliar application of MDLE at vegetative and reproductive growth stages on (A) seed Potassium contents (mg/g) (B) seed Zinc contents (mg/g) and (C) seed Calcium contents (mg/g) of soybean. Capped bars denote standard errors of four replicates. Mean not sharing a letter in common differ significantly at 5% probability level by Tukey’s HSD test.

Impact of foliar application of MDLE at vegetative and reproductive growth stages on (A) seed Magnesium contents (mg/g) and (B) seed Iron contents (mg/g) of soybean. Capped bars denote standard errors of four replicates. Mean not sharing a letter in common differ significantly at 5% probability level by Tukey’s HSD test.

Impact of foliar applied MDLE on seed ash contents (A) and fiber contents (B) (%) of soybean at various growth stages is presented in Fig. 4. For seed ash contents, significant interaction between MDLE concentration and soybean growth stages implied that MDLE at 1.0% and 1.5% at reproductive stage was statistically superior as compared to the application of aforementioned concentrations at vegetative stage (Fig. 4A). For seed fiber contents, significant increment was recorded with 1.0% and 1.5% MDLE application with both concentrations being at par with each other yet significantly different from 0.5% MDLE and water spray. Foliar application at reproductive stage was better than reproductive stage (Fig. 4B). Attributes such as seed nutrient content and ash percentage showed significant interaction effects, likely because these traits are more sensitive to the timing of nutrient availability during critical reproductive phases when nutrient translocation is most active.

Impact of foliar application of MDLE at vegetative and reproductive growth stages on (A) seed Ash contents (%) and (B) seed Fiber contents (%) of soybean. Capped bars denote standard errors of four replicates. Mean not sharing a letter in common differ significantly at 5% probability level by Tukey’s HSD test.

While the positive effects of MDLE concentrations on soybean growth and yield were evident, it is important to consider the potential influence of environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity and light intensity on these outcomes. As discussed earlier, the study was conducted under arid conditions in South Punjab, where temperatures during critical growth stages (March to May) ranged from 28 to 40 °C, with a total rainfall of 31 mm. These environmental factors likely played a role in modulating the effectiveness of foliar-applied MDLE. These environmental conditions, while relatively controlled in a pot experiment, highlight the importance of optimizing foliar application timing and techniques to maximize MDLE efficiency in different agro-climatic contexts. Future studies could explore the interaction of MDLE with environmental stressors such as drought, heat, or fluctuating humidity to better understand its role in enhancing crop resilience under field conditions.

The foliar application of 1.5% MDLE during the reproductive stage not only enhances soybean growth and yield but also offers tangible economic benefits for farmers by increasing crop productivity and reducing dependency on synthetic fertilizers. Despite the promising results, potential challenges related to MDLE preparation, application efficiency, and variability in leaf quality should be considered when scaling up for commercial use. Nonetheless, MDLE represents a sustainable, low-cost biostimulant with the potential to support environmentally friendly agricultural practices while improving farm profitability.

In this study, we evaluated the impact of different doses of MDLE on soybean growth, biochemical, gas exchange, yield and seed nutritional attributes across various growth stages. Results showed significant effects of MDLE foliar application during both vegetative and reproductive phases. Substantial improvement in studied attributes was observed with 1.5% MDLE applied at reproductive stage. MDLE foliar application notably influenced growth metrics of soybean including leaf area, seedling root and shoot length across both vegetative and reproductive stages. The most substantial improvements in these parameters were evident with 1.5% MDLE specifically applied during the reproductive stage. MDLE is rich in cytokinins, particularly zeatin, which plays a pivotal role in regulating cell division, differentiation, and organ development. Cytokinins promote cell cycle progression by activating cycling-dependent kinases, leading to increased cell proliferation in meristematic tissues resultantly, enhanced root and shoot growth, as observed in the current study.

The boost in soybean growth can be ascribed to blend of nutrients, amino acids, antioxidants and cytokinins in moringa, acting as biostimulants37. Taiz and Zeiger38 reported an increase in plant hormones because of MLE foliar application that arouses seedling growth through higher metabolites mobilization to growing plumule. Previous research findings indicate that foliar application of MLE enhanced growth of the various crops39. Similarly, Karthiga et al.40 reported that exogenous application of biostimulants has been proved as an effective technique in boosting crop growth and yield. Phiri5 reported an increase in germination and seedling growth in cereals like wheat, maize and sorghum by foliar application of MLE. Likewise, foliar application of MLE on different growth stages of wheat improved various seedling growth metrics like seedling weight, root and shoot length41. Leaf area significantly impacts crop yield, serving as the primary site for converting water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight. The increase in leaf area may be attributed to growth hormones and nutrients present in moringa extract, and cytokinin and K have important roles in this regard. MLE stimulates earlier production of cytokinins, thereby delaying leaf senescence and promoting more leaf area with higher photosynthetic pigments42,43,44.

In our research, both growth stages and concentrations of MDLE significantly influenced photosynthetic pigments (carotenoids) and gas exchange attributes like photosynthetic (A) and transpiration rate (E). However, a notable increase in these attributes was observed when 1.5% MDLE was foliar applied during the reproductive stage. The increase in photosynthetic pigments can be attributed to the rich source of vital elements like iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg) found in MLE, crucial for chlorophyll synthesis, as highlighted by Marschner45. This suggests that the application of Fe and Mg-rich MLE could potentially enhance photosynthetic pigments (carotenoids). MDLE contains potent antioxidants such as ascorbic acid, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds, which enhance the plant’s ability to mitigate oxidative stress. During reproductive growth, plants experience increased metabolic activity, leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Uncontrolled ROS accumulation can damage cellular structures, including lipids, proteins, and DNA. The antioxidants in MDLE scavenge these ROS, maintaining redox homeostasis and protecting the integrity of photosynthetic machinery. This enhanced antioxidant defense likely contributed to the observed increase in photosynthetic rate, as oxidative damage to chloroplasts was minimized, allowing for sustained light absorption and carbon fixation. Additionally, cytokinins delay leaf senescence by stabilizing chlorophyll content and maintaining photosynthetic activity, thereby improving biomass accumulation and yield during the reproductive stage38. Findings of our study are in line with Kumari et al.46, who reported higher levels of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, b, carotenoids) with foliar application of MLE in tomatoes. Likewise, maximum photosynthetic pigments with improved leaf using MLE were reported by Rehman and Basra44. Foliar application of 1.5% MDLE at reproductive stage of soybean resulted in an increase in gas exchange attributes like A and E. These findings are in accordance with Khan et al.47, who observed an increase in various gas exchange attributes like A and E using growth promoters. The significant improvements in gas exchange parameters with 1.5% MDLE application during the reproductive stage can be attributed to the combined effects of Mg-mediated chlorophyll synthesis, Fe-enhanced electron transport, K-regulated stomatal conductance, and cytokinin-driven delay of senescence. These factors collectively enhance photosynthetic efficiency and water use, contributing to improved growth, yield, and seed quality in soybean.

Our results revealed significant impact of foliar feeding of MDLE on yield related traits in soybean. Improvements in yield attributes like pod length, pod diameter, 100-seed weight, biological yield and harvest index at different growth stages is evident. Notably, the most significant increase in these yield parameters occurred with the specific application of 1.5% MDLE during the reproductive stage. Greater growth promotion at higher concentration can be attributed to higher total quantity of growth promontory substances in these extracts. This boost in soybean yield-associated attributes can be attributed to the heightened nutritional demands during the critical reproductive phase, that might have been effectively met through the application of essential macro and micronutrients rich MLDE. The 1.5% concentration of MDLE likely represents an optimal balance of these bioactive compounds, providing sufficient hormonal stimulation (via cytokinins), enhanced nutrient availability (Fe, Mg, K, Ca), and antioxidant protection without causing nutrient toxicity or hormonal imbalances. This concentration maximizes the plant’s ability to support the high metabolic demands of reproductive growth, leading to enhanced source-sink dynamics, with more efficient translocation of assimilates to developing seeds and improved nutrient uptake efficiency, supported by higher root activity and vascular development. This finding diverges from earlier studies41 that emphasized the benefits of moringa extracts during early vegetative growth stages. By demonstrating that MDLE applied at the reproductive stage maximizes seed nutrient accumulation and yield components, our results provide new guidance for targeted foliar application strategies in soybean cultivation. The response to MLE varied depending on both the growth stage of the plant and the concentration of MLE applied as noted by Yasmeen et al.41. These productivity enhancements align with the fact that moringa leaves serve as a rich source of growth-promoting agents, amino acids, calcium, potassium, iron, and ascorbate. Our findings are consistent with previous studies by Mahmood et al.48 and Zhang et al.49, which underscore the substantial influence of MLE on yield parameters. Furthermore, Phiri and Mbevi50 have highlighted the role of hormones and micronutrients present in MLE in promoting high grain formation. The higher 1000-grain weight observed indicates improved grain size and significantly enhances the economic yield of wheat, as emphasized by Afzal and Iqbal51, who demonstrated that foliar application of MLE improves 1000-grain weight, biological yield and grain yield when applied at critical growth stages of wheat. Similarly, Manzoor et al.52 reported that foliar application of MLE at the tillering stage of wheat has been shown to significantly enhance leaf area index, leaf area duration, total dry matter accumulation, spikelets per plant, 100-grain weight, and grain yield. The superior performance of 1.5% MDLE during the reproductive stage can thus be attributed to the optimal combination of hormonal regulation (cytokinins), enhanced photosynthetic capacity (Fe, Mg), improved nutrient transport (K, Ca), and stress mitigation (antioxidants). This multifaceted approach enables soybean plants to achieve maximum productivity and seed quality under 1.5% MDLE treatment. The superior performance of 1.5% MDLE is likely due to the concentration’s ability to surpass the threshold needed to activate key physiological pathways involved in nutrient uptake, hormonal regulation, and stress mitigation. Trade-off exists between concentration and application timing, with the reproductive stage providing a window of heightened responsiveness to MDLE treatments. Future studies could explore the effects of even higher concentrations and varied application schedules to identify the most cost-effective strategies for different farming systems.

The foliar application of 1.5% MDLE during the reproductive stage significantly improved seed potassium (K), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe) contents. The boost in nutritional attributes of soybean seed is because of the fact that MLE is blend of various amino acids, soluble sugars, fiber, proline, phenols, carotenoids, ascorbic acid and minerals like Ca, Mg, K, phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), Fe, manganese (Mn), Zn, copper (Cu)8. Abdalla53 reported a surge in growth and yield attributes as well as nutrient accumulation (N, P, K, Fe, Ca, and Mg) in rocket plants with foliar feeding of 2% MLE. Moringa leaves are well known because of their nutritional attributes because they contain three times more K than banana and four times more Ca than milk25. Findings of current study are in line with Bakhtavar et al.30, who observed increased levels of K and Ca in maize leaves with foliar application of MLE, sole and in combination with kinetin solution. Jain et al.54 conducted a greenhouse study where they foliar applied MLE from various moringa varieties on stevia plants and reported boost in nutrient concentration like N, K and Ca in its leaves. Rashid et al.55 observed an increase in K and Ca contents in quinoa seeds with the foliar application of MLE. In our study, boost in soybean seed ash and fiber contents was observed with 1.5% MDLE. This is because of the fact that moringa leaves are also a rich source of fiber content. These findings are in accordance with the chemical composition of MLE reported by Rady et al.8, that contains ash and fiber contents. The improvement in seed nutritional quality through MDLE application has far-reaching implications beyond yield enhancement. By increasing the concentrations of essential nutrients like K, Zn, Ca, Mg, and Fe, MDLE-treated soybeans can contribute to human health, livestock productivity, food security, and economic sustainability. These findings support the integration of MDLE into agricultural practices as a dual-purpose strategy for improving both crop performance and nutritional outcomes. This discussion underscores the efficacy of MDLE, with its blend of mineral nutrients, antioxidants, and plant growth regulators like cytokinin, as a natural enhancer for promoting vegetative and reproductive growth, as well as seed nutritional and quality attributes in soybeans, particularly during the reproductive stage. The application of 1.5% MDLE during the reproductive stage is a practical, cost-effective, and sustainable strategy for enhancing soybean productivity. Its ease of preparation, low cost, and environmental benefits make it particularly valuable for smallholder farmers and agricultural systems aiming to reduce chemical inputs. By improving both yield and seed nutritional quality, MDLE contributes to economic resilience, food security, and environmental sustainability, aligning with global goals for sustainable agricultural development. While this study provides promising evidence of MDLE’s potential as a biostimulant for soybean, its generalizability to diverse agricultural contexts requires further investigation. Addressing these limitations through comprehensive field trials, long-term studies, and economic evaluations will help optimize MDLE application and ensure its sustainable integration into modern agricultural practices.

Foliar feeding of 1.5% MDLE significantly enhanced soybean seedling growth, biochemical, gas exchange, seed nutritional, quality and yield metrics both at vegetative and reproductive stage. Foliar application of 1.5% MDLE at the onset of the reproductive stage showcased prominent improvements in these attributes. Overall, increments in seedling growth metrics (22%), leaf area (16.12%), photosynthetic pigment (8.33%), gas exchange attributes (18%), yield components (37%) and seed nutritional attributes (18%) were observed with 1.5% MDLE application during the reproductive stage. Foliar application of 1.5% MDLE during the reproductive stage significantly enhanced soybean growth, yield, and seed nutritional quality. The observed improvements in photosynthetic efficiency, nutrient uptake, and yield components highlight MDLE potential as a cost-effective, eco-friendly biostimulant for sustainable soybean production. Beyond individual crop performance, MDLE foliar application offers a promising strategy for reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers, thereby lowering input costs and minimizing environmental impacts associated with chemical use. This approach aligns sustainable agricultural practices by promoting natural resource efficiency, enhancing crop resilience to environmental stress, and supporting soil health. However, practical challenges such as the time required for extract preparation, potential variability in extract quality, and environmental factors influencing foliar absorption should be considered when scaling up. While the study advocates the effectiveness of 1.5% MDLE, it should also mention the need for broader field trials or studies in different environmental conditions to fully validate the findings. However, the response to MDLE may vary under different environmental conditions, soil types and soybean varieties, which were not addressed in this study. Future research should explore these variables through multi-location field trials to validate the consistency of MDLE effects across diverse agro-ecological settings.

All data used in the study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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The authors extend their appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2025R347), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. We also acknowledge the research project No 14744 entitled “Assessment and Commercialization of Ecofriendly Landraces of Moringa oleifera as a Fodder Crop and Forest Tree Under Semi-Arid Region of Pakistan” funded by Higher Education Commission, Islamabad, Pakistan under National Research Program for Universities. The authors thank the Ongoing Research Funding program (ORF-2025-347), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Department of Agronomy, MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan

Sohail Irshad, Amar Matloob, Shahid Iqbal & Rao Muhammad Ikram

Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan

Amar Matloob

Department of Biological Science, Superior University, Lahore, Pakistan

Kashf Mehmood

Department of Agricultural Engineering, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan

Muhammad Nawaz

Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Muhammad Ashfaq Wahid

Soil and Water Testing Laboratory, Rahim Yar Khan, Pakistan

Muhammad Atif Ghafoor

Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia

Manzer H. Siddiqui & Saud Alamri

Colorado Water Centre, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA

Shahbaz Khan

Central Great Plains Research Station, USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Akron, CO, 80720, USA

Shahbaz Khan

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All the authors actively participated in finalizing the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript for publication.

Correspondence to Kashf Mehmood.

The authors declare no competing interests.

No human or animal subjects were involved in this research, and thus, no additional ethical approval was required. The foliar application of MDLE was conducted under controlled conditions, ensuring no risk of environmental contamination or harm to non-target organisms.

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Irshad, S., Matloob, A., Mehmood, K. et al. Moringa dried leaf extract as bio-foliar fertilizer for revitalizing performance and nutritional status of soybean. Sci Rep 15, 20431 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95404-0

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